Varna (Hinduism)

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Varna (वर्ण varṇa) is a Sanskrit term derived from the root vṛ meaning "to enclose" or "colour".^[1] The term, which also means letter, paint, cover, coat, class and caste, has been used in various contexts in the hindu scriptures.^[2]

In historical Indic traditions the varna and caste systems are not the same system, although they are related.^[3] Varna and caste systems are believed to have become related to mean the same thing, as caste, after the Vedic period when the puranas and dharmashastras were written.

In popular belief, the varna system, also known as varnashrama dharma, is based on principles laid out in the scriptures of the Vedic tradition, which categorize Hindus into four "varnas" or social classes and prescribe specific duties for each. These are the brahmanas (brahmins) (serving as priests and teachers), kshatriyas (duties of administration, battle, and law enforcement), vaishyas (customarily agriculture, commerce, and cow-protection), and shudras (who provide service to members of the other three varnas). In this system, it is supposedly the brahmins and not the kings, who commanded the greatest respect in society despite their relative lack of wealth or political power.

It is worthwhile to note that the puranas were written after the vedic period; and the Manusmriti is not considered to be bereft of interpolations. Therefore the context of varna as presented by evidence of meaning in the puranas and the dharmashastras differ in various hindu schools. According to the Arya Samaj, the varna of a student used to be decided after an education period of 14 years^[4].

However, in popular belief, it was implicit within the concept that most Hindus would faithfully follow their prescribed duties for the greater good of the entire society. In reality though, fluidity of castes or occupation groups appear to have been common ^[1]. The modern caste system is supposedly an extension of the ancient varnashrama tradition. The caste system recognizes many more social groupings not mentioned in the Hindu scriptures and only theoretically accepts the necessity of following prescribed duties. Caste has become a highly contentious issue in Indian politics, and academic scholarship on the subject has often been critical of its varnashrama origins. Traditional Hindus however do not regard varnasharma as merely an hereditary pass to enjoy social standing. Rather, they consider it to be natural and integral to daily life, existing to maintain an harmonious and functional society based on spiritual ideals.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 General Overview of the Varna System 3 The Brahmana Varna 4 The Kshatriya Varna 5 The Vaishya and Sudra Varnas 6 Instances of varna throughout Hindu texts and tradition 7 Rigveda 8 The Dharmaśāstras 9 Intermarriage 10 Penance 11 Particular Tasks and Times of adversity 12 The twice born 13 Social development 14 Jati 15 Cyclical theory of history 16 Opposition within Hinduism 17 Tantric view 18 References 19 Further reading 20 External links 21 See also

[edit] Etymology

Varna is a Sanskrit term (वर्ण) varṇa meaning "colour", however it has come to be associated with the qualities and divisions of Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śudra. The concept of varṇa is first articulated in the Ṛgveda (10.90) and is taken up again by many contributors to the Dharmaśāstra tradition, including Manu, the putative author of the Mānavadharmaśāstra. As an organisational category, varṇa is a large 'command-level' division, and should be understood in contrast to "jāti" (compare entry), a subdivisional category of kin groups.

• In the Zoroastrian Avesta and the Gathas, the word Varana or Varena (from the root Var ("put faith in, to believe in") is used in the sense of preference^[5] (or religious affiliation, conviction, faith, religious doctrine, choice of creed or belief). The language of the Gathas (the oldest part of the Avesta) is very similar to the language of the Rig Veda.
• It may also come from the root Var- "choose", as in "svayamvara", “[a girl’s] own choice [of a husband]”^[6], or from the root vri (which means "one's occupation").
• In the Rig Veda, the word varNa occurs 22 times and means lustre. In 17 out of 22 times it refers to the "lustre" (i.e. "one's own typical light") of gods like Soma, Agni or Ushas.^[7] In RV 3.34.5 and RV 9.71.2 it refers to the lustrous colour of the sky at dawn.^[8]
• According to Hindu tradition, Varna refers to sounds of speech or language. Western Indologists have wrongly interpreted varna as "a letter of the alphabet". According to Welzer (1994 (229-230)), Varna can be grammatically derived from the term "class" (vide Panini), but it has acquired the incorrect meaning of "colour".

[edit] General Overview of the Varna System

In all societies throughout history, social hierarchies are established according to contemporary value systems. Such hierarchies arrange the populace according to unique sets of arbitrary, subjective criteria such as a religious text or tradition which is unique to each given society. Contemporary value systems insist that those possessing superior abilities rule over and exploit those with weaker abilities. However, on closer examination, such systematic measurements of the worth of individuals and the assignment to a societal status thereupon are usually discovered to be highly flawed. Hierarchical social structuring exists independently of any objective standard of virtue or morality, or morality would be redefined by those at the highest levels of such social groupings.

In the classical Hindu tradition, social hierarchization of the populace into unique classes or varnas is also implemented. Hindu tradition classifies all people into one of four varnas in a system which, according to the authorless scriptures, (see also apaurusheyatva of Vedas) ia divinely created. ^[9], ^[10] These four varnas are organized according to progressively greater predominance of desireable qualities or gunas. There are three gunas: sattva (goodness), rajasa (passion), and tamasa (ignorance). Sattva is stated in the scriptures to be purer than the others and most conducive to cultivating knowledge and happiness ^[11], ^[12]. Thus, it is those in whom sattva predominates who are given the highest regard in this system.

The four varnas of the Vedic system are the brahmanas (brahmins), kshatriyas, vaishyas, and shudras. According to this system, brahmanas were required to cultivate predominantly sattvic attributes and have minimal rajasic or tamasic qualities. Kshatriyas were required to have greater rajasic qualities albeit tempered by some sattvic qualities, vaishyas would have more tamasic and rajasic qualities but still sattvic qualities, while shudras were allowed to have predominantly tamasic and rajasic qualities. A person's varna was generally determined by the varna of his father and mother. The boys of the Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaisyha varnas were identified as such from a very early age ^{by whom?} and underwent an initiation ceremony, the upanayana, to confirm their varna status. They are often referred to as "twice born" because of this initiation into spiritual life, specifically, with the study of the Vedas. Thus, from a very early age, the children of the twice-born varnas are identified and trained to take up their religiously prescribed duties.

Brahmins are alloted the duty of serving as priests and teachers. On the kshatriyas fall the duties of administration, battle, and law enforcement. Vaishyas customarily were involved in agriculture, commerce, and cow-protection. Shudras were supposed to provide service to members of the other three varnas. It is interesting to note that in this system, it is supposedly the brahmins, and not the kings, who commanded the greatest respect in society despite their relative lack of wealth or political power.

There is frequent debate within Hindu circles about whether or not one's varna was restricted to the varna of his or her birth. Some Hindu thinkers past and present believe that one's inborn qualification independent of birth determined his varna. Some evidence in regards to these different views will be presented later.

[edit] The Brahmana Varna

From Bhagavad-gita 18.42:

śamo damas tapaḥ śaucaḿ kṣāntir ārjavam eva ca |

jñānaḿ vijñānam āstikyaḿ brahma-karma svabhāva-jam ||

"Peacefulness, self-control, austerity, purity, tolerance, honesty, knowledge, wisdom and religiousness — these are the natural qualities by which the brāhmaṇas work." ^[13]

The brahmanas are said to have been created from the face of the original Purusha. ^[14] As the spiritual teachers of society, the brahmins enjoyed the highest degree of respect from the other three classes of society. In the Bhagavata Purana, Sri Vishnu, the deity identified as Supreme Godhead in the Vaishnava traditions of Hinduism, says that the brahmanas are the most beloved ^[15], that he enjoys the eating through the mouths of the brahmanas who are devoted to him ^[16], and that the brahmanas are his very body ^[17]. He is captivated by those who show respect to the brahmanas, even when the brahmanas utter harsh words, trying to pacify them with the thinking that brahmanas are the Lord's very Self. ^[18]

[edit] The Kshatriya Varna

From Bhagavad-gita 18.43:

śauryaḿ tejo dhṛtir dākṣyaḿ yuddhe cāpy apalāyanam |

dānam īśvara-bhāvaś ca kṣātraḿ karma svabhāva-jam ||

"Heroism, power, determination, resourcefulness, courage in battle, generosity and leadership are the natural qualities of work for the kṣatriyas."^[19]

The kshatriyas are the warriors and administrators of society. Their role is illustrated by the Rig Veda description of their origin in the arms of the Purusha ^[20], indicating a propensity towards action. Far from a mindless warrior or soldier of fortune, the kshatriya was a fighter whose martial skills were tempered by his education in the Vedas. His duty was for the protection of all people and the enforcement of justice as stated in Manu Dharma Shastra 7.2:

brahmaM prAptena saMskAraM kShatriyeNa yathAvidhi | sarvasyAsya yathAnyAyaM kartavyaM parirakShaNam ||

The protection of all should be just and lawfully made by a Kshatriya (king), initiated with all the initiatory rites inculcated in the Vedas, according to the laws of his own realm and in the exercise of the functions peculiar to his own order. ^[21]

According to the same (Manu 10.8-9), the king is considered respectable even as an infant, and his wrath is compared to an all consuming fire. ^[22] His inability to enforce the law and inflict punishment where it is due is said to lead to an anarchy in which the strong will torment the weak (Manu 10.20). The kshatriya who is acting in concordance with the teachings of sastra is alone capable of properly exercising the rod of punishment (Manu 10.31). Still, in spite of all these praises, even the noble and powerful kshatriya must respect and obey the brahmanas (Manu 10.37-38). His power must be put in check by humility (Manu 10.39), and he must learn from the brahmanas about the Vedas, law, logic, and economic disciplines (Manu 10.43). The kshatriya was required to be a master of his senses and avoid vices that originate from lust lest he risk his doom (Manu 10.44-46).

[edit] The Vaishya and Sudra Varnas

"Farming, cow protection and business are the natural work for the vaiśyas, and for the śūdras there is labor and service to others." ^[23]

However, it is simplistic to suggest that shudras are predominantly lethargic, dull, or inactive. The Bhagavata Purana 11.17.21 states:

ahiḿsā satyam asteyam akāma-krodha-lobhatā |

bhūta-priya-hitehā ca dharmo 'yaḿ sārva-varṇikaḥ ||

"Nonviolence, truthfulness, honesty, desire for the happiness and welfare of all others and freedom from lust, anger and greed constitute duties for all members of society." ^[24]

In contrast, we also find the following (Bhagavata Purana 11.17.20):

aśaucam anṛtaḿ steyaḿ nāstikyaḿ śuṣka-vigrahaḥ |

kāmaḥ krodhaś ca tarṣaś ca sa bhāvo 'ntyāvasāyinām ||

"Dirtiness, dishonesty, thievery, faithlessness, useless quarrel, lust, anger and hankering constitute the nature of those in the lowest position outside the varṇāśrama system." ^[25]

This view indicates that a certain minimum standard of virtuous behavior is expected even of the shudras, while an excess of faulty qualities was considered unbecoming of members of any varna.

The system of four varnas was said to have been created by Sri Krishna as stated in the Bhagavad-Gita 4.13:

cātur-varṇyaḿ mayā sṛṣṭaḿ guṇa-karma-vibhāgaśaḥ |

tasya kartāram api māḿ viddhy akartāram avyayam ||

"The four orders of society were created by Me classifying them according to the mode of Parkriti predominant in each and apportioning corresponding duties to them; though the author of this creation, know Me, the immortal Lord, to be a non-doer." ^[26]

The varna system is also mentioned in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda 10.90.12 which states:

बराह्मणो.अस्य मुखमासीद बाहू राजन्यः कर्तः | ऊरूतदस्य यद वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ||

"The Brahmana was the mouth of the purusha, his two arms were made into the Rajanya, his two thighs were the Vaishya, and from his two feet the Shudra was born." ^[27],

kṛṣi-go-rakṣya-vāṇijyaḿ vaiśya-karma svabhāva-jam |

paricaryātmakaḿ karma śūdrasyāpi svabhāva-jam ||

The Asrama refers to the four stages of individual life of the Hindus. The ideal lifespan of a hundred years was divided into four stages. Brahmacharya ("student life") for 25 years, Grihastha ("householder life") after marriage for another 25 years, Vanaprastha or age of retirement for another 25 years ("anchorite life") and if after that somebody lives, Sannyasa ("renunciate life") or permanent seclusion from social activities for the rest of life. Hindu tradition holds this system as a dharma ("sacred law") sanctioned by the scriptures.

The later concept of caste system refers to the modern form of varnashrama in Hindu society. It is similar to the traditional system in the sense that it recognizes the four varnas as described above. However, the modern caste system also contains various subgroupings of each varna as well as classes (i.e. "Dalit") which are not recognized in the scriptural varnashrama system. In modern, post-industrial India, many Hindus no longer follow exclusively the prescribed duties recommended for their specific varna, but the varna/caste distinctions remain due to their hereditary basis and the different social standings associated with each. Caste has become a highly contentious, politicized issue, so much so that it even colors much of the scholarship pertaining to Hinduism and varnashrama.

[edit] Instances of varna throughout Hindu texts and tradition

The Purusha Sukta in the Rig-Veda 10:90 refers to the four principal varnas described in Manu's code, viz. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. They are compared to the body of the "primordial man" or Purusha: "The Brâhmana was his mouth, of both his arms was the Râjanya made. His thighs became the Vaishya, from his feet the Sûdra was produced." (RV 10:90:12) ^[28] This model is often cited for its hierarchical ordering of the varnas since brahmins being the head are placed higher than the shudras who constitute the feet. However, by the same logic the model also implies the concept of interdependence of the varnas, since one would not wish to do without one's feet. Furthermore reading this mantra within the entire context of the Purusha Sukta, which also describes the Purusha as the origin of the Sun (from his eye), the Moon (from his mind), the sky (from his head), air (from his navel), horses, cattle, etc leads one to the conclusion that the entire Sukta is emphasizing the point that all these come from the original Purusha. Thus, while hierarchy of varnas is implied, this does not appear to be the main idea of the text.

There is a story in the Chandogya Upanishad 4.4.1-5 of a boy, Satyakama by name, who wished to present himself before a guru for spiritual instruction but did not know his gotra or family lineage, which is ordinarily required before one can be initiated in the Vedic tradition. When asked of his gotra by his prospective guru, Satyakama truthfully told him that he did not know his gotra and that he was instructed to refer to himself simply as "Satyakama Jabala" or in other words, Satyakama son of Jabala (his mother). His guru was impressed with his honesty and concluded, despite not knowing the boy's gotra, that Satyakama was a brahmin and could thus receive initiation. ^[29] Some modern Hindu thinkers claim that this story downplays the importance of heredity in favor of qualification, as Satyakama was accepted as a brahmin despite there being no proof his hereditary brahminical status. However, traditional commentators such as Sri Sankaracharya uphold the view that the truth-telling was itself regarded by the guru as evidence of the boy's brahminical lineage, which, along with the fact that guru requested to know the boy's lineage, implies that heredity was a prerequisite for initiation as a brahmin.

Another Upanishad, Vajra-sucika by name, purportedly denounces the idea that one's brahminical status is determined by birth, and instead states that a brahmin is one who truly knows Brahman (God). ^[30] This is etymologically correct and ideally true. However since most people do not know Brahman, this definition does not translate into a practical method by which society can recognize who is and is not a brahmin. Furthermore, many traditional Vedantins regard this and other "Upanishads" outside the principle twelve commented on by Sankaracharya as spurious documents authored in relatively recent years.

In the Bhagavad-Gita 1.27-46 and 2.4.-9, Arjuna becomes compassionate to the kinsmen his kshatriya duty requires him to fight, and asserts that he would rather renounce any hope of victory and attainment of royal opulence in favor of begging. ^[31], ^[32] Although this non-violent and altruistic behavior would be more consistent with a brahminical disposition, Sri Krishna does not accept such compassion and instead exhorts Arjuna to fight, as Arjuna was born and raised as a kshatriya. At no time was Arjuna referred to as a brahmin despite his altruistic mood of renunciation. On the contrary, Sri Krishna advises him that it is better to perform his own duty imperfectly than to accept another's duty and perform it perfectly. ^[33] This clearly indicates that one cannot abandon one's hereditary varna duties regardless of his individual qualifications.^[34]

Many Hindu yogis and sages have, over the centuries, constantly commented about inheriting social status. Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th century), the powerful bhakti of Krishna also denounced inheriting social status. He famously distributed the Hare Krishna mantra to non-brahmins all around India, claiming this was the True path to moksha.

Kanakadasa of the 15th century also denounced inherited social status. He believed that Life in every human being is Divine, and that only the ignorant wrought injustice against their own brethren by this practice. Basavanna of the 12th century is said to have denounced inherited social status and tried to unify all communities under the Linga (form of Shiva).

[edit] Rigveda

In Sanskrit, Varna means color, as in quality (just as the term "Saguna Brahman.") One of the hymns of the Rig Veda, one of the holiest Hindu scriptures, gives the following enumeration in the famous Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90):

मुखं किमस्य कौ बाहू का ऊरू पादा उच्येते ॥

ब्राह्मणो अस्य मुखमासीद बाहू राजन्यः कर्तः ।

ऊरूतदस्य यद वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ॥

Its rough translation is : "What became of his (the Cosmic Spirit's) face or mouth? What became of his two arms? What became of His two thighs? What were (the products of) the two feet called? From His face (or the mouth) came the brahmanas. From His two arms came the rajanya (the kshatriyas). From His two thighs came the vaishyas. From His two feet came the shudras."

In the Purusha Sukta hymn the word Varna is not used, and it is the only hymn of the Rig Veda where the words Vaishya and Shudra are used. The Purusha Sukta hymn is considered to be one of the youngest parts of the Rig Veda.

[edit] The Dharmaśāstras

The concept of dharma deals mainly with the duties of the different varṇas and āśhramas (life cycles). Therefore most of the dharmaśāstras lay down the duties of people during the different parts of life and the duties of the different castes. The dharmaśāstras were written by Brahmins for Brahmins, therefore the greater part of them deals with the duties of the Brahmins. The part pertaining to the court system deals with the role of the Kṣatriya, in their role as the ruling class. However, the sections reserved for the Vaiśyas and the Śūdras are very short. In fact, in the Manuśmrti, the section marked for the Śūdras simply reads that they should do what they can to serve the Brahmins, and indicates that if they do well by the Brahmins they will be reborn into a higher caste. Though they are not allowed to recite the ritual formulas, they may do what they can to know and practice the Law through the imitation of Brahmins, as long as they do not do it out of envy.^[35].

Manusmṛti is often quoted in reference to the Varna system as an inherited social class system. The Manusmṛti is a later work that does not form a part of Hindu Scriptures, so it is of questionable relevance. Use of the Manusmṛti by the British colonialists has been used by politicians and sociologists to denigrate those of the Hindu faith.[1].

The Manusmṛti claims that by the time it was written, Hindu society included another class (untouchables) of people without a position in any of the four Varnas and therefore associated with the lowest of the jobs. The upper classes, who were supposed to maintain ritual and corporal purity, came to regard them as untouchables. The people of this "fifth varna" are now called Dalits (the oppressed) or Harijans; they were formerly known as "untouchables" or "pariahs". However, this last addition social strata is not a part of the religion of Hinduism. Hinduism only categorizes occupations in to four categories.

[edit] Intermarriage

It is very clear that in the early Vedic times, the Varna system (if at all it existed) meant classes with free mobility of jobs and intermarriage. One hymn of the Ṛg Veda states:

कारुरहं ततो भिषगुपलप्रक्षिणी नना । (RV 9.112.3)

"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......"

While intermarriage between Brahmana bridegrooms and Kshatriya princesses was extremely common (even sanctioned by the later Manusmṛti), in many instances, marriages between Kshatriya princes and Brahmana brides was also observed (severely condemned by Manusṛmrti). One of such instances is marriage of Yayati, a Kshatriya King, with Devayani, a daughter of the sage Shukracharya.

In later times, with the elaboration of ritualism, class status became hereditary (the historians disagree as to when) and the Śūdras were not even allowed to hear the sacred word of the Vedas.

When it comes to intermarriage, a low-born wife will achieve high status accorded to the one she married. They gain their husbands distinguished qualities “like a river uniting with the ocean.”^[36] However, she does not completely lose her class. If there are wives from different castes, their seniority is based upon their caste. According to Manu, “Among all these, only the wife of equal class may care for her husband’s physical needs or participate in his daily rites prescribed by Law."^[37]

Movement between Varṇas

According to Yājñavalkya, the mixed caste children can through continuing to marry into higher castes and producing children can obtain that caste. For example, if a Śūdra woman marries a Brahmin, and her mixed caste daughter marries a Brahmin, and this pattern continues, at the seventh generation, the child is a pure Brahmin. The number of generations needed for this to happen is reduced by one according to the castes. So, a Vaiśya would take six generations to become a Brahmin and a Kṣatriya would take five. The reverse can also happen. If a Brahmin begins to follow the livelihood of a Śūdra, and his son does the same and so on, by the seventh generation, the son becomes a Śūdra. This does not mean that the opposite is true, and a Śūdra can become a Brahmin through following a Brahmin’s livelihood, as one should never do the particular duties and activities associated with a higher varṇa.^[38]

Punishment

A portion of the Manusmṛti deals with certain offenses and how one of a certain caste should be punished for that offense. The punishments can vary greatly according to the varṇa the offender belongs to. For example, if a Śūdra should insult a Brahmin, he get a heated spike driven through their tongue. If a Brahmin insults a Śūdra, he is only fined 12 units.^[39][40]. According to Nārada, if a Śūdra insults a king, while the king is “engaged in his duties,” he will also be punished corporeally.^[41] In Manu, a Śūdra is the only one who must suffer corporeal punishment for insulting the twice-born castes. The other castes are merely fined, with the amount of the fine increasing for each caste level.

On the other hand, within the Nāradasmṛti, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, and Śūdras are all susceptible to corporeal punishment. When it comes to violent acts, the punishments are applied uniformly to members of each caste. Brahmins, however, cannot be corporeally punished. Bhava says this is due to the reverence owed to their caste.^[42]

Much importance is placed on the respect of the upper varṇas. If a Śūdra touches a Brahmin in an inappropriate way, the only way to atone for it is to rid them of the limb they used to commit the offense. Certain roles that people of particular varṇa are supposed to fill are also shown consideration and given importance, such as the role of the king. Nārada says, "If an evil-minded man assails a king, even a sinful king, it is worse than murdering one hundred (Brahmins)."^[43]

[edit] Penance

When it comes to penances, Brahmins have to perform more penance, and the amount needed gets increasingly less with the descending varṇas.^[44] However, at the same time, there are types of penance that are unavailable to certain varṇas. For example, Sudras are not allowed access to the Vedas, and therefore cannot achieve purification through the recitation of the Vedas. However, there are still opportunities for them to expiate themselves through such prayascitta as pilgrimages and vratas (religious vows).^[45][46]

[edit] Particular Tasks and Times of adversity

There is a lot of effort put into making sure each caste does the tasks specifically related to the caste, if conditions allow. If the castes “deviate from their specific activities, they throw the world into confusion.”^[47] Manu says that when a Vaiśya is willing to farm animals, then no other caste should do that task.^[48] If a Śūdra wishes to give instruction on the Law to Brahmins, he is corporeally punished. Both Manu and Nārada instructs the ruler to pour boiling oil into his mouth and ears.^[49] Śūdras are also not given leave to get wealthy. According to Manu, if he does, he harasses Brahmin.^[50] The greatest activity a Śūdra can engage in is the service of Brahmins. Manu states, “…the Śūdra was created by the Self-existent One solely to do slave labor for the Brahmin.”^[51]

However, the Manusmṛti also provides for times of adversity, when it is not always possible to survive when one’s activities are restricted by the caste system. While Brahmins are instructed to provide for those in need of a livelihood if possible, this is not always practical.^[52] If a Śūdra is unable to make a livelihood through the service of Brahmins or the other twice-born, he may then engage in artisanship.^[53] Conversely, if a Vaiśya is unable to make a living doing his duty, he may resort to the work of a Śūdra, and should discontinue this work as soon as it is possible. A Vaiśya or kṣatriya, however, cannot be forced into slave labor against their will.^[54]

[edit] The twice born

The first three varnas are seen as 'twice born'. They are allowed to study the Vedas. In India and Nepal the sub-communities within a Varna are called Jat or Jati (The varna is also used instead of Jat). Traditionally, each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati members. People are born into their Jati and normally it cannot be changed, though there were some exceptions in Hindu Scriptures. For example, sage Vishwamitra was born as a Kshatriya (ruling class) and by deep meditation (tapas) became a venerable Brahmin rishi (saint). Once someone is born to certain sub-community or Jati he or she cannot normally change their Jati, However in that life time, good deeds can allow a lowclass jati member to ascend to the the upperclass and study the vedas as a Brahmin priest. The occupations of the Vaishya are those connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding of cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the people, administering justice, and the duties, of the military profession generally and ruling and expounding all Dharma. Both share with the Brahmin the privilege of reading the Vedas. To the Brahmin belongs the right of teaching and expounding the sacred texts. Shudras were the serfs, and performed agricultural labour. Muluki Ain has incorporated the entire ethnic group of Nepal into the social hierarchy.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Social development

Varna (class) and the jati (caste) system is used by Hindus, particularly in India, Bali and Nepal for reasons of determining lineage and is passed down through patrilineal descent. It is based on the older four-varna system varnas which later became attached to the members' families. Sometimes mlechha (people excluded from caste) are referred to as fifth varna.

[edit] Jati

The terms Varna (general classification based on occupation) and Jati (caste) are two distinct concepts. Varna (from Sanskrit, literally "arrangement") is a supposed unification of all the Hindu castes or jatis into either four groups: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, or into one of several varna-sankaras वर्ण संकर. Jati (community) is an endogamous group. Generally a sub-community is divided into exogamous groups based on same gotras गोत्र. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas. Indologists sometimes confuse the two.^[55]

Many of the Hindus could be classified into a specific varna. But not all. During the British rule, several cases went to court to settle the "varna" of a sub-community^{[citation needed]}. For example, the farmers are sometimes given Kshatriya status because many ruling Chieftains may have risen from them. On the other hand some classified them as Vaishya, based on an older occupation of artisans. Orthodox Brahmins may classify them as Shudras, because they do not have a tradition of undergoing through the thread ceremony, that would make them dvija द्विज .

[edit] Cyclical theory of history

The Varnas have also given birth to a theory of historical development. P.R. Sarkar propounded his Social Cycle Theory on the basis of a quadri-divisional social order rooted in the core of human psychological motivity. Nascent such ideas emerged in the works of Sri Aurobindo.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Opposition within Hinduism

Critics point that the effect of communities (jatis) inheriting varna was to bind certain communities to sources of influence, power and economy while locking out others and thus create more affluence for jatis in higher classes and severe poverty for jatis in lower classes and the outcaste Dalit. In the last 150 years Indian movements arose to throw off the economic and political yoke of an inherited class system that emerged over time, and replace it with what they believed to be true Varnashrama dharma as described in the Vedas.

In the religious scripture Mahabharata, Yudhisthira, is questioned by Yama in the form of a Yaksha, about what makes one a Brahmin. Yudhisthira, without hesitation, said that it is conduct alone that makes one a Brahmin.

Ramananda, an ascetic of the Sri Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnava sampradaya, accepted all varna as his disciples. Mirabai, the 15th century mystical poet and Queen of Chittor is known to have ignored varna distinctions and elected the cobbler, Sant Rohidas, as her guru. Annamacharya, a 15th-century telugu poet's famous Bramhamokkada song, preaches equality of all in the eyes of God and condemns inheriting social status as un-Vedic. And proposed a return to traditional varnashrama dharma. Which promoted equality and stressed the importance of all varnas. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the 19th century Hindu religious leader, also did not recognise varna distinctions and took his first alms as a twice-born Brahmin from a Shudra woman.

The late Swami Krishnananda, a foremost disciple of Swami Sivananda and former General Secretary of Divine Life Society, noted the following about inherited social status in his autobiography:

"While the [varna] system was originally evolved for the necessary classification of human duty in order to preserve the organic stability of society, its original meaning and its philosophical foundation was forgotten through the passage of time, and bigotry and fanaticism took its place through the preponderance of egoism, greed and hatred, contrary to the practice of true religion as a social expression of inner spiritual aspiration for a gradual ascent, by stages, to God Almighty. Vidura, famous in the Mahabharata, was born of a Shudra woman. But he had the power to summon the son of Brahma, from Brahmaloka, by mere thought. Which orthodox Brahmin can achieve this astounding feat? It is, therefore, necessary for everyone to have consideration for the facts of world-unity and goodwill, Sarvabhuta-hita, as the great Lord mentions in the Bhagavad Gita. Justice is more than law. No one's body is by itself a Brahmin, because it is constituted of the five gross elements,- earth, water, fire, air and ether. Else, it would be a sin on the part of a son to consign to flames the lifeless body of a Brahmin father. It is, therefore, not proper to victimise a colleague by an action plan of any religious community wedded to fundamentalist doctrines."[2]

Paramahansa Yogananda also opposed what he called to the un-Vedic inherited social status as we know it today. He taught that varna originated in a higher age, but became degraded through ignorance and self-interest. Yogananda said:

"These were (originally) symbolic designations of the stages of spiritual refinement. They were not intended as social categories. And they were not intended to be hereditary. Things changed as the yugas [cycles of time] descended toward mental darkness. People in the higher [classes] wanted to make sure their children were accepted as members of their own [class]. Thus, ego-identification caused them to freeze the ancient classifications into what is called the ‘caste system.’ Such was not the original intention. In obvious fact, however, the offspring of a brahmin may be a shudra by nature. And a peasant, sometimes, is a real saint."

—from Conversations with Yogananda, Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2003.

[edit] Tantric view

The Tantric movement that developed as a tradition distinct from orthodox Hinduism between the 8th and 11th centuries CE^[56] also relaxed many societal strictures regarding class and community distinction. However it would be an over generalization to say that the Tantrics did away with all social restrictions, as N. N. Bhattacharyya explains:

"For example, Tantra according to its very nature has nothing to do with the [class] system but in the later Tantras [class] elements are pronounced. This is due to the fact that although many of our known Tantric teachers were non-Brāhmaṇas, rather belonging to the lower ranks of society, almost all of the known authors of the Tantric treatises were Brāhmaṇas who could not give up their [class/community] prejudices notwithstanding their conversion to Tantrism."^[57]

[edit] References

Lal, Vinay (2005), Introducing Hinduism, New York: Totem Books, pp. 132-33, ISBN 9781840466263

[edit] Further reading

• Ambedkar, B.R. (1946) Who were the Shudras?
• Alain Danielou (1976). Les Quatre Sens de la Vie, Paris
• Sri Aurobindo (1970), The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, War and Self-Determination, (Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust), ISBN 81-7058-281-4 (hardcover), ISBN 81-7058-014-5 (paperback)
• Ravi Batra, "The Downfall of Communism and Communism: a New Study of History", Macmillan, New York, NY, USA, 1978
• Sohail Inayatullah, Understanding P. R. Sarkar: The Indian Episteme, Macrohistory and Transformative Knowledge, Brill Academic Publishers, 2002, ISBN 9004128425.
• Elst, Koenraad Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. 1999. ISBN 81-86471-77-4 [3]
• Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) -- Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
• "Brahmanotpatti-martanda" Harikrishna Shastri, (Sanskrit), 1871
• Jati Bhaskar", Jwalaprasd Mishra, (Hindi), published by Khemaraj Shrikrishnadas,1914.
• G.S. Ghurye (1961). Caste, Class and Occupation. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.
• G.S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (1932)
• Prabhat Rainjan Sarkar (1967) Human Society-2, Ananda Marga Publications, Anandanagar, P.O.Baglata,Dist. Purulia, West Bengal, India.
• Ghanshyam Shah, Caste and Democratic Politics in India, 2004
• Welzer, Albrecht. 1994. Credo, Quia Occidentale: A Note on Sanskrit varna and its Misinterpretation in Literature on Mamamsa and Vyakarana. In: Studies in Mamamsa: Dr Mandan Mishra Felicitation Volume edited by R.C. Dwivedi. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.

[edit] External links

Look up varna in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Maanoj Rakhit on the Varna system
• Jati system in India
• India Together on Caste
• Annihilation of Caste with a Reply to Mahatma Gandhi Part I & Part II by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
• Writings by Dr Ambedkar about Caste Online texts
• Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures (pdf)
• Articles on Caste by Koenraad Elst: Caste in India, Buddhism and Caste, Indian tribals and Caste, Physical anthropology and Caste, Etymology of Varna
• Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?
• Authentic Caste System by Monk of The Century:Shankaracharya Shri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Maharaj
• Association of Devotees
• [1] Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, by Susan Bayly and Gordon Johnson.

[edit] See also

• Brahmin
• Forward Castes
• Hindu reform movements
• Kshatriya
• Prabhat Rainjan Sarkar
• Shudra
• Vaishya